Entrepreneur

People frequently use this term without exactly knowing its real meaning or its background, especially when the topic has to do with big, small, medium and even micro enterprises. Therefore there is a need to define the term in a contemporary and precise way. An entrepreneur is a person who initiates a new economic, commercial or industrial enterprise, and provides the capital and labour to produce and market a new commodity or service in the market. If he/she succeeded he may add an extra capital to expand his activities and may publicly offer part of the company's shares in the market for whoever wants to buy. Usually a good entrepreneur succeeds and flourishes as success breeds success.

The term's origin was French and was borrowed in English with its spelling and pronunciation. The first to define the term was Richard Cantillon, an Irish economist. It means now the person who establishes a new project and is completely responsible for it. It is believed that Jean-Baptiste Say, the French economist was the first to invent the term in 1800. He said that an entrepreneur is the one who establishes an enterprise, and works as a middle man between capital and labour.

Usually the entrepreneur's work is strenuous, and sensitive. As there are prospects of success, failure is not excluded, perhaps for unavoidable reasons. The entrepreneur is often meant to be the founder or the initiator. He is the one who may create a value added by introducing   a new commodity or service, and creates for himself a suitable atmosphere in the market which has not existed before. Entrepreneurs tend to identify available opportunities in the market by study and experience, and seize them in the best way. They plan and put down all details. They ask for feasibility studies from specialised experts, and organise their resources efficiently to produce something that changes the existing interactions in a certain sector.

Observers see that an entrepreneur should be ready for accepting a high level of personal, vocational and financial risks to benefit of the opportunity which he is aware of while others are not. Several developing states have recognised the importance of small and medium enterprises, and have established funds for social development to help offer all facilities such as financing, training, feasibility studies, assessment, marketing and follow-up. International donors usually help such funds by soft loans and grants when they are sure they are serious and well-organised.

Entrepreneurs are looked at as very important and useful citizens in societies that are controlled by market mechanisms. Some of them have become owners and partners in gigantic developmental enterprises, and have shown interest in the social dimension, and are called "social entrepreneurs" because they are interested in promoting social or/and environmental affairs. Entrepreneurs should be distinguished with leadership and armed with administrative skills and with the ability to create a team work to maximize work benefits. This concept is stipulated in research studies of political economy.

There is a prevailing theory that entrepreneurs emerge to meet society's needs. They can identify problems and believe that they are capable of solving them. They work hard to realise their dreams. There are some theorists of the Austrian School who believe that entrepreneurs are creative and innovative people. They use the term "creative destruction" to describe their opinion concerning entrepreneurs' role in changing the pattern of commercial business. This "creative destruction" deals with changes which are affected by entrepreneurs' activity whenever a new operation, commodity or company enters the market. The big companies and corporations of today had a modest start at the beginning by dreaming and innovative entrepreneurs who could transform their dreams into reality. I have seen in the United States and Japan some small garages and modest workshops which have become multinational corporations.

Equality             

Equality is one of the demands which individuals and groups everywhere ask for, and which is not easily available, unless there are certain circumstances that are related to cultural and historical development, and absorption of the concept that all human beings are equal in value, even if they are not equal in ability. Equality – in its essence – means providing peoples of all races with equal opportunity to enjoy political, economic and social rights without discrimination because of religion, colour, language, sex or social status. Therefore we find that the concept of equality is integrated in the principles of world rights. We also find it mentioned in the laws and constitutions of all states in the world. We clearly find it in the verses of the Holy Qur'an and other heavenly religions, and in wise men's instructions and philosophers' theories.

After that peoples and governments ratified the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in which Article 1 stipulated that "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood." Equality is one of the most important and noblest principles of human rights, which rejects any feature of different treatment, segregation or discrimination between human beings or racial or ethnic minorities, or between man and woman, or against physically disabled persons.

The cause of equality and its importance has been the concern of human thought throughout the history of mankind. Realising social justice was the dream of peoples all the time, especially in the societies in which their circumstances prevent them from applying equality on different pretexts or under exceptional conditions. In spite of the explicit ban on discrimination on the national and international levels, equality was in many cases far from complete application in real life, where justice fades, and persecution and coercion prevail.

Equality helps the people to engage in production and consumption activities, and in social interaction and political action. The French Revolution's motto was Liberty, Fraternity and Equality as an expression of common people's ambition to lead a decent life, and to confirm what religion have advocated that God Almighty loves all human beings, and that absolute egalitarianism is an obligation, so that all the peoples should get the same treatment.

There are different kinds of equality or methods that can be dealt with on equal footing, and seem acceptable. In modern democratic societies the term "Egalitarianism" is used to refer to a position that favours a higher degree of equality in income and wealth for the citizens, more than the case which is prevailing nowadays. Nevertheless, there are several peoples, groups, associations and organisations that sincerely fight, each with its won weapons, to realise the dream of equality for all human beings. At the same time there are still some states and groups that use the slogan of equality to achieve their own self interests at other peoples' expense.        

Espionage

Espionage is a French term that has been introduced to the English language, with its French pronunciation and spelling. It is one of the oldest professions in the history of mankind. There has been always a dire need for states to obtain data, information and statistics about the points of weakness and strength of their real or possible enemies. These sources can be built on to develop expectations, and estimations concerning the hostile plans, programmes and strategies. This is also extended to what they develop of development, reconstruction and recovery projects, as well as preparations, training, armament and alliance with foreign powers and internal mobilisation. Such information and analyses are beneficial in preparation and assumptions, either to launch preemptive attacks of counter propaganda campaigns, or to strengthen defences if they were attacked by their neighbours or foreign states targeting control of their natural and human resources, or benefiting of their geopolitical and strategic position.

Espionage is one of the oldest professions in human history. There was always dire need for it to collect data, information and statistics of the points of weakness and strength of real and possible enemies. On such sources expectations and assessments are built of what these enemies prepare of hostile plans, programmes and strategies. This is extended to what they do of development and construction, together with preparations, training, armament, and alliances with foreign powers, and internal mobilisation. These data and analyses are beneficial in deciding either to launch a pre-emptive offensive, counter-propaganda campaigns, or strengthening defences.

Intelligence methods – which espionage is an important part of them – have varied throughout ages, using the most modern inventions and technologies, in order to achieve their objectives in taking the enemy on surprise, using the secrets that the enemy was keen to hide, penetrate his strongholds, and affect the morale of its forces, and spread panic among its soldiers.

In modern times, espionage makes use of scientific and technological advances in all fields, especially in communications, decoding confidential messages, and data collection. Espionage also develops new camouflage and deceit devices, and has been able to mobilise highly sophisticated and daring agents to execute offensive and defensive plans, and to maintain national security, territorial integrity and vital interests.

Peoples differ in their viewpoints of espionage according to their cultures and historical experiences and events, and what espionage has realised of heroic achievements or frustrations and failures. Some peoples and individuals consider espionage work as the noblest kind of patriotism, as it means readiness to sacrifice for the fatherland, in spite of great risks. Some others see that it is not compatible with high ideals and moral principles because it works under cover and aims to divulge hidden secrets without their owners' permission. But in case of war, anything that is to do with national security and the citizens' safety, and any secrets that are collected are only used to avoid risks, and not to slander individuals.

We should differentiate between the work and methods of intelligence and that of diplomacy. Intelligence works undercover, and it collects information abroad by secret means. It may mobilise agents to discover military, political and economic secrets, while diplomacy uses public and declared methods to get information through meetings, parties, conferences and discussions. Diplomats have to strengthen personal relations with those who are influential and decision-makers to know all required information in time. They have to follow up and analyse what is published in the press or other media, without resorting to secret methods, which may be considered as espionage. If a diplomat does not refrain from using secret methods, he/she may be exposed to be declared "persona non grata" in the state in which he/she is accredited. Tension may follow between the sending and receiving states.

Ethnocentrism                                                           

Ethnocentrism (which is cultural racial fanaticism) is the believe that an ethnic group is superior than another ethnic, political or cultural group. Ethnocentrism is usually spread among human gatherings, even if one of them is tolerant and open-minded. However, some scientists used to think that ethnocentrism is often a characteristic of primitive cultures, and they never thought that the European culture is characterised with ethnocentrism as well.

Ethnocentrism leads to misunderstanding of others, who are looked at through our living experiences and not theirs. We do not understand that their ways of life have a meaning for them, and have certain functions in life, exactly as our way of life. In stead of showing hostility to other cultures and scorning them, we should do our best to maintain, respect and study them deeply, and not just dialogue with them. We should reach their roots and know their justifications, in order to co-exist with them. In such way most problems between nations, states and cultures will be solved. That is much better than unnecessary suspicions, wrong information and interpretations, and mixing facts with wishful thinking.

Ethnocentrism in international relations creates conflicts and aggravates them, and makes it difficult to resolve. For instance, if one group expressed a viewpoint that is different than ours, our way of life may influence our interpretation of this group's intentions, and we may take it as "hostile". We should convince ourselves that if another group "wins", it does not necessarily mean that we "lose". On the "win-win game" or the positive sum game, international cooperation is based and also family affinity, together with friendship, alliances and partnerships, and is called "mutual interests".

There are extreme forms of ethnocentrism which may cause grave social problems such as racism, colonialism, race cleansing and apartheid. Some advanced societies, especially in the West, interpret and evaluate other cultures according to the criteria of their own culture. They may call other groups "backward", "barbarian" or "wild".  The opposite of ethnocentrism is "cultural relativity", which means understanding cultural phenomena in their context. There are many people who believe that the concept of religious fanaticism can apply on large scale on the orientation of most people as long as the majority of them like or prefer their culture more than any other culture. When they do that they try to degrade the value of other cultures. The term also refers to the tension that exists in the society which encompasses several ethnic and racial minorities.

The Islamic Arab Civilisation was distinguished with alienating itself from ethnocentrism. It used to welcome distinguished scientists and to use brave leaders, even when they came from non-Arab countries, and to be proud of their scientific research and their Islamic contributions. The Arab culture, in its historical experience, was not a closed or narrow-minded one. It always expressed an obvious ability for openness and tolerance, and it accepted the experiences of other nations and integrated them in its knowledge and its system in spite of their differences and diversity. Thus the Islamic Arab culture represents a broad crucible and an open space for the concept of real plurality and diversity, and the absorption of the cultural storage of different nations and peoples. Consequently, the Islamic Arab culture helped Europe in its modern renaissance, and honest European scientists of integrity feel grateful for that.